1.Figures of substitution. Figures of quality: a) based on contiguity: metonymy, synecdoche; b) based on contrast: irony.
METONYMY
Metonymy is transference of a name of one object to another object. Metonymic transference of names is based upon the principle of contiguity of the two objects.
Assigned features. As a rule, metonymy is expressed by nouns, less frequently - by substantivized numerals. That is why the syntactic functions and positions of metonymic words are those of the subject, object and predicative.
Classification. Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine).
Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words or new meanings: table's leg, teapot's nose, a hand (instead of a worker), the press (instead of people writing for newspapers), grave (instead of death), the cradle (instead of infancy), etc. Such metonymic meanings are registered in dictionaries. It is obvious that lexical metonymy is devoid of stylistic information.
Contextual metonymy is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speech. It is fresh and expressive:
This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel.
Communicative functions. Stylistic metonymy builds up imagery, points out &! this or another feature of the object described, and makes speech economical.
More examples:
The fish swallowed her death and the float went down.
Linda gave her heart to the grocer's young man.
Язик до Києва доведе.
Нам треба більше робочих рук.
SYNECDOCHE
This variety of metonymy is realized in two variants. The first variant is naming the whole object by mentioning part of it:
Caroline lives with Jack under the same roof (under the same roof =in the same house).
The second variant of synecdoche is using the name of the whole object to denote a constituent part of this object::
The school went to the zoo.
The blue suit bowed and left the room.
The museum spoke of the past.
Його кров вас покарає.
Він мав свій куток, свій шматок хліба.
Уночі палало село.
IRONY
This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to their primary language meanings:
ironical good means bad, enough means not enough, pleased means displeased, etc.
Assigned features. Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist words and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out of context:
too clever by half, a young hopeful, head cook and bottle washer, to orate, to oratorize.
In order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker often resorts to appropriate intonation and gestures.
Communicative function. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction, disappointment, displeasure, etc. More examples:
Cutting off chickens' heeds! Such a fascinating process to watch.
It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.
Він такий розумний, що й "два плюс два" не второпає.
Аякже, рада вас бачити, тільки б ще три роки не приходили.
Гарне життя: як собаці на прив'язі.
2. 1.Figures of substitution. Figures of quality: based on similarity: metaphor, epithet, antonomasia, personification;
METAPHOR
Metaphor is the second figure of quality. Metaphor, like metonymy, is also the result of transference of the name of one object to another object. However, metaphoric transference is of different nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity).
Classification. The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may he classified according to a number of principles.
1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee metaphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed, like cliches:
the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire; seeds of evil; floods of tears; хмара запитань; потік емоцій/сліз;перемивати кісточки;
Original metaphors are not registered in dictionaries. They are created in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable:
Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.
The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees.
Де котиться між голубих лугів Хмарина ніжна з білими плечима.
2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are classified into nominational, cognitive and imaginative (or figurative). Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic information. They are intended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world. A nominational metaphor is a purely technical device of nomination, when a new notion is named by means of the old vocabulary:
the arm of the chair, the foot of the hill, ніжка столу, колінна чашечка, рукав річки
Nominational metaphor is a source of lexical homonymy.
When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cognitive metaphor is formed:
One more day has died.
The shore was drowning in the fog.
Лукаса переслідувало відчуття, ніби за ним стежать.
Навчання посувалося поволі, але все ж посувалося. Час ішов сонце вставало і знову сідало на горизонті.
Being a source of lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphors do not possess great stylistic value.
The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor. Imaginative metaphors are occasional and individual. They are bright, image-bearing, picturesque and poetic:
Patricia's eyes were pools of still water.
If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.
Чорне озеро ярмарку вливається струмком в каплицю; одні йдуть, другі виходять.
У розлогому полумиску долини, що по самі вінця затекла сонцем. колобродиться, вирує ярмарок.
3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or according to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as simple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained). A simple metaphor consists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion:
The leaves were falling sorrowfully.
A good book is the best of friends.
The wind was a torrent of darkness
День тягнеться довго.
Небо насупилось хмарами.
A sustained metaphor appears in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their metaphoric meanings:
The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless
Заворушились кляті питання, кляті думки і болі; вони звідусіль лізли в голову, справляли там і похорони, і поминки. І вже очей і серця не тішив ні дитячий шепіт колосу, ні тихий зоряний пил, ні місячне марево.
In fact, a sustained metaphor is a sequence of simple metaphors, most of which are cognitive. This chain of simple metaphors unfolds the meaning of the first, initial metaphor.
Communicative functions. Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. Its main function is aesthetic. Its natural sphere of usage is poetry and elevated prose.
Additional features. Canonized metaphors tend to become symbols. A symbol is an object which stands for something else:
the rose often stands for love, the dove stands for peace, the cross stands for Christianity, the red colour stands for passion.
EPITHET
Epithets are such attributes which describe objects expressively.
Assigned features. It is essential to differentiate between logical attributes and epithets proper. Logical attributes are objective and non-evaluating:
a round table, green meadows, гіркий перець, сива бабуся, рожева тканина. They have nothing to do with stylistics.
Epithets proper are subjective and evaluating, mostly metaphorical. These qualities make epithets expressive:
loud ocean, wild wind, glorious sight, irresistible charm, crazy behaviour.
Classification. Epithets may be classified on the basis of their semantic and structural properties. Semantically, epithets fall into two groups: epithets associated with the nouns modified and epithets not associated with the nouns modified. Associated epithets point out typical features of the objects which they describe. Such typical features are implied by the meaning of the nouns themselves:
If forest, then - dark;
If attention, then — careful;
гіркі сльози, сива давнина, рожеві мрії,
Unassociated epithets ascribe such qualities to objects which are not inherent in them. As a result of this, metaphors emerge fresh, unexpected, original and expressive:
voiceless sands, helpless loneliness, гіркий сон, сивий біль.
Unassociated epithets may be called "speech epithets" because they are created right in the process of communication.
Associated epithets are mostly language epithets. Their use with certain nouns has become traditional and stable. Thus, they are language-as-a-system elements.
As to their structural composition, epithets are divided into simple, compound, phrasal and clausal. Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives: magnificent sight, tremendous pressure, гробова тиша, голосистий дзвін.
Compound epithets are expressed by compound adjectives:
mischief-making pupil, curly-headed boy, щиросердне зізнання, хитромудрий начальник
Phrasal epithets are expressed by word-combinations of quotation type: go-to-devil request, head-to-toe beauty, темно-сірі з грозою і цвітом очі.
Clausal epithets are expressed by sentences:
l-don’t-want-to-do-it feeling, підхід "моя хата з краю".
ANTONOMASIA
This variety of metaphor is based upon the principle of identification of human beings with things which surround them. People may be identified with other people, with animals, with inanimate objects and natural phenomena.
When the speaker resorts to antonomasia, he creates the so-called "talking names" which aim at depicting certain traits of human character: moral and psychological features, peculiarities of behaviour, outlook, etc.:
John is a real Romeo.
The Snake entered the room (instead of Mary entered the room).
Пане Забудько, ви знову залишили ключі вдома?
Ви ж просто Шаляпін. такий голос маєте!
PERSONIFICATION
When the speaker ascribes human behaviour, thoughts and actions to inanimate objects, he resorts to the stylistic device of personification:
Lie is a strange creature, and a very mean one.
The night was creeping towards the travelers.
З неба ж широко-величного, ясного та чистого радісно дивилось на них сонце й сміялось.
Соние стояло якесь безпомічне і нерішуче. Боялось навіть моргнути.

10. Phonetic and graphic stylistic devices: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, graphon
Alliteration is a stylistically motivated repetition of consonants. The repeated sound is often met at the beginning of words: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper. Alliteration is often used in children's rhymes, because it emphasizes rhythm and makes memorizing easier:
The same effect is employed in advertising, so that slogans will stick in people's minds: Snap, crackle and pop_
Alliteration is used much more in poetry than in prose. It is also used in proverbs and sayings (тише едешь, дальше будешь; один с сошкой, семеро с ложкой), set expressions, football chants, and advertising jingles.
Assonance is a stylistically motivated repetition of stressed vowels. The repeated sounds stand close together to create a euphonious effect and rhyme: The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain. We love to spoon beneath the moon in June. Just like alliteration, assonance makes texts easy to memorize. It is also popular in advertising for the same reason. Assonance is seldom met as an independent stylistic device. It is usually combined with alliteration, rhyming, and other devices
Onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds which imitate natural sounds: wind wailing, sea murmuring, rustling of leaves, bursts of thunder, etc. Words which represent this figure of speech have aural similarity with the things they describe: buzz = жужжать, roar = грохотать, bang = бахнуть, hiss = шипеть, sizzle = шипеть на сковородке, twitter — чирикать» pop = хлопать , swish = рассекать воздух, burble = бормотать, cuckoo — куковать, splash - плескаться. Animal calls and sounds of insects are evoked onomatopoeically in all languages. For example, cock-a- doodle-do! is conventionally the English representation for the crowing of a cock. Interestingly, the Russians and the French represent this imitation as кукареку and cocorico correspondingly, which is significantly different from the English variant, although logic tells us that the roster's cry is the same across the world. It means that onomatopoeia is not an exact reproduction of natural sounds but a subjective phenomenon.
Basic notions of graphic expressive means are punctuation, orthography or spelling, text segmentation, and type. Punctuation is used in writing to show the stress, rhythm and tone of the spoken word. It also aims at clarifying the meaning of sentences. There are such common marks of punctuation: the full stop [.], the comma [,], the colon [:], the semicolon [;], brackets [()], dash [-], hyphen [-], the exclamation mark [!], the oblique stroke [/], the interrogative mark [?], inverted commas (quotation marks) [“ ”], suspension marks […], the apostrophe [‘].




3. Figures of substitution. Figures of quantity: hyperbole, meiosis, litotes
HYPERBOLE
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon.
Assigned features. Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. The most typical cases of expression are: by pronouns (all, every, everybody, everything); by numerical nouns (a million, a thousand); by adverbs of time (ever, never). In Ukrainian the ways of expression are such: by pronouns (всі, все, весь, вся, всяк(ий), кожен, кожна, кожне); by numerical nouns (сотня, тисяча, мільйон); by intensifying adverbs (жахливо, страшенно, колосально); by adverbs of time, place (завжди, ніколи, всюди).Hyperbole may be the final effect of other stylistic devices: metaphor, similie, irony.
Communicative function. Hyperbole mounts the expressiveness of speech. Examples:
Mary was scared to death.
I beg a thousand pardons.
Він такий голодний, що коня з'їсть.
Таким поглядом можна вбити.
MEIOSIS
This figure of quantity is opposite in meaning to hyperbole. Meiosis is a deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon.
Assigned features. Meiosis underlines insignificance of such qualities of objects and phenomena as their size, volume, distance, time, shape, etc. The domain of meiosis is colloquial speech.
Communicative function. Meiosis makes speech expressive. Examples:
There was a drop of water left in the bucket.
It was a cat-size pony.
Можна ще крапельку супу?
Зачекайте хвилинку. Він пару секунд тому побіг до друга, що живе у трьох кроках звідси, і зараз повернеться.
LITOTES
Litotes is a specific variant of meiosis.
Assigned features. Litotes has a peculiar syntactic structure. It is a combination of the negative particle "not" and a word with negative meaning or a negative prefix. Such a combination makes positive sense: "not bad" means "good", "not unkind" means "kind", etc.
Litotes is used in all functional styles of English.
Communicative functions. Litotes extenuats positive qualities of objects or phenomena. It makes statements and judgments sound delicate and diplomatic. It also expresses irony. Examples:
Martin is not without sense of humour.
John's behaviour was not disrespectful.
Він не якийсь там жалюгідний жебрак і не просить вас зробити неможливе.
Бачу, що ви обурені, і не без причини.
4. Figures of substitution. Figures of inequality and contrast: zeugma, pun, oxymoron
ZEUGMA
A zeugmatic construction consists of at least three constituents. The basic word of it stands in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to a couple of adjacent words. The basic word combined with the first adjacent word forms a phraseological word-combination. The same basic word combined with the second adjacent word forms a free word-combination. For example:
Freddy got out of bed and low spirits.
Communicative function. Zeugma is used to create a humoristic effect which is achieved by means of contradiction between the similarity of the two syntactic structures and their semantic heterogeneity. More examples:
Mary dropped a tear and her handkerchief.
George possessed two false teeth and a kind heart.
Любить медалі один, а другий - мрію.
PUN (Каламбур)
The principle of semantic incompatibility of language units realized in zeugma is also realized in pun. In fact, pun is a variant of zeugma, or vice versa. The difference is structural: pun is more independent, it does not need a basic component like zeugma. Pun is just a play on words.
Classification.
1. Play on words may be based upon polysemy and homonymy:
a) Visitor, to a little boy:
— Is your mother engaged?
- Engaged ? She is already married;
2. Play on words may be based upon similarity of pronunciation:
John said to Pete at dinner: "Carry on". But Pete never ate carrion.
Хотів розвалитися у кріслі, а воно не витримало і розвалилося.
Ваше чадо - чудо, але не чудове, якраз навпаки.
OXYMORON
This figure of contrast is a combination of words which are semantically incompatible. As a result, the object under description obtains characteristics contrary to its nature: hot snow, loving hate, horribly beautiful, nice blackguard.
Безпощадний блиск твоєї вроди лагідно в душі моїй сія. (Д. Павличко)
Взимку сонце крізь плач сміється.
Холодним жаром запалало серце.
Classification. The main structural pattern of oxymoron is "adjective + noun" (hot snow). The second productive model is "adverb + adjective" (pleasantly ugly). Predicative relations are also possible (Sofia's beauty is horrible). Besides that, oxymoron may occasionally be realized through free syntactic patterns, such as up the down staircase.
Communicative function. Oxymoron has great expressive potential. It is normally used in cases when there is a necessity to point out contradictory and complicated nature of the object under description.
5. Syntactic stylistic devices. Reduction of the sentence model: ellipsis, asyndeton, aposiopesis.
ELLIPSIS
An elliptical sentence is such a syntactic structure in which there is no subject, or predicate, or both.. The main parts of elliptical sentences are omitted by the speaker intentionally in cases when they are semantically redundant. For example:
— Where did you go?
- To the disco.
Assigned features. Elliptical sentences can not be viewed as stylistic devices in direct intercourse because they are devoid of suprasegmental information. Ellipsis becomes expressive when used in literature as a means of imitating real speech. Ellipsis makes speech dynamic, informative and unofficial.
Communicative functions. Ellipsis saves the speaker from needless effort, spares his time, reduces redundancy of speech. Elliptical structures may also reveal such speakers' emotions as excitement, impatience, delight, etc. As a stylistic device, ellipsis is an effective means of protagonists' portrayal.
More examples:
Hullo! Who are you?
The staff.
Where are the others?
At the front.
Скільки тобі вчитися в училищі? - Два роки.
APOS1OPESIS
Like ellipsis, aposiopesis is also realized through incompleteness of sentence structure, though this incompleteness is of different structural and semantic nature: it appears when the speaker is unwilling to proceed and breaks off his narration abruptly:
If you go on like this...
Ну, взяв би і написав листа. А то...
Я ось йому покажу, де раки зимують. Буде він у мене...
Assigned features. The information implied by aposiopesis is usually clear in communicative situation. Break-in-the-narrative expresses such modal meanings as threat, warning, doubt, indecision, excitement, and promise.
ASYNDETON
It is deliberate omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives:
John couldn't have done such a silly thing, he is enough clever for
that. Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins.
Cocking tails and pricking whiskers,...
Механізм справді був простий, зручний, корисний.
Пан директор сміється, сміється сонце, сміюсь і я.
Communicative functions. Asyndeton makes speech dynamic and expressive. Sometimes it implies the speaker's haste, nervousness and impatience


6. Syntactic stylistic devises. Extension of the sentence model: polysyndeton, parallel constructions.
REPETITION
Stylistic repetition of language units in speech (separate words, word-combinations or sentences) is one of the most frequent and potent stylistic devices.
Classification. There are such structural types of repetition as:
1. Consecutive contact repetition of sentence parts and separate sentences:
/ am weary, weary, weary of the whole thing!
Голова на солому хилиться, хилиться, хилиться.
2. Anaphora. The repeated word or word-combination is at the beginning of each consecutive syntactic structure:
Victory is what we need. Victory is what we expect.
Щастя не вміщалося у серці, щастя розривало груди!
3. Epiphora. The repeated unit is placed at the end of each consecutivesyntactic structure:
It is natural to be scared in a case like that. You are sure to be petrified in a case like that. Вона хотіла жити! Повинна була жити!
4. Framing. The initial part of a language unit is repeated at the end of this unit:
Poor Mary. How much Jack loved her! What will he do now? I wish it hadn 't happened. Poor Mary.
Я так і знав, що ви забудете принести книгу. Я так і знав.
5. Linking or reduplication. The final component of a syntactic structure is repeated at the beginning of a sequential syntactic structure:
It was because of that dreadful occurrence. That dreadful occurrence had changed it all.
Сонце пече! Так пече, ніби воно з квасочниками в долі.
6. Chiasmus (reversed parallel construction). In such syntactic structures there is a cross order of repeated language units:
The jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been
Люди існують в часі, а час існує в людях.
POLYSYNDETON
It is stylistically motivated redundant repetition of conjunctions or prepositions:
The dog barked and pulled Jack, and growled, and raged.
Communicative functions. Polysyndeton is a means of rhythmical organization of the utterance. Due to this quality it is widely used in poetry. It also makes for underlining the most important part of information. More examples:
First the front, then the back, then the sides, then the superscription, then the seal, were objects of Newman's admiration.
Запальна штука — спорт. Вона захоплює і малого, і старого, і немічного.
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS
Parallelism is a stylistic device of producing two or more syntactic structures according to the same syntactic pattern:
Mary cooked dinner, John watched TV, Pete played tennis.
Assigned features. Parallel constructions is a means of enumerating facts, comparing them or confronting them. Parallel confrontation of facts may result in another stylistic device - antithesis:
Married men have wives, and don't seem to want them. Single fellows have no wives, and do itch to obtain them.
Communicative functions. Syntactic parallelism is polyfunctional. It creates rhythm and is typical of poetry. It makes speech persuasive and is a feature of the publicistic and oratory styles. It underlines important information and is widely used in everyday speech. More examples:
Сядеш собі: вітер віє, сонце гріє, картоплиння навіває думки.
Гуде ярмарок... Бігають коні, кричать крамарі, регочуться дівчата, крутиться карусель...
Другі сміються. Треті плачуть.
Я так і знав, що ви забудете принести книгу. Я так і знав.
5. Linking or reduplication. The final component of a syntactic structure is repeated at the beginning of a sequential syntactic structure:
It was because of that dreadful occurrence. That dreadful occurrence had changed it all.
Сонце пече! Так пече, ніби воно з квасочниками в долі.
6. Chiasmus (reversed parallel construction). In such syntactic structures there is a cross order of repeated language units:
The jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been
Люди існують в часі, а час існує в людях.
7.Syntactic stylistic devices. Change of word-order. Transposition of sentence meaning: inversion, suspense, detachment, rhetoric question.
INVERSION
Inversion is the syntactic phenomenon of intentional changing word-order of the initial sentence model.
Classification. There are two basically different types of inversion: grammatical and stylistic. Grammatical inversion is devoid of stylistic information. It is just a technical means of forming different types of questions.
Stylistic inversion is such a change of word-order which gives logical stress or emotional colouring to the language units placed in an unusual syntactic position.
Stylistic inversion is typical of the predicate, predicative and all the secondary parts of the sentence:
In came Jack, (predicate)
Little chances Benny had. (direct object)
To her family Martha gives all her time, (indirect object).
A horrible death Douglas died, (cognate object)
This is a letter congratulatory, (attribute)
To the disco Hilda went, (adverbial modifier)
In the Russian and Ukrainian languages the word order of a sentence is flexible, and inversion as an expressive means is supported with a specifying intonation:
Очевидно, Федір ніде не працює.
Працює він. Тільки вдома ложкою
Самотності не зносила ріка
SUSPENSE
Another SD dealing with the arrangement of members of the sentences is suspense – a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence. The term “suspense” is used in literary criticism to denote an expectant uncertainty about the outcome of the plot. Detective and adventure stories are examples of suspense fiction. The theme, that which is known, and the rheme, that which is new, of the sentence are dinstanced from each other and the new information is withheld, creating the tension of expectation. Technically, suspense is organized with the help of embedded clauses (homogeneous members) separating the predicate from the subject and introducing less important facts and details first, while the expected information of major importance is reserved till the end of the sentence
DETACHMENT
When placed in a certain syntactic position, a sentence component may seem formally independent of the word it refers to. Such components of sentence structure are called "detached":
There was a nice girl there, I liked her name, Linda.
Classification. Any secondary part of the sentence may become detached:
Smither should choose it for her at the stores — nice and dappled. (attribute)
They put him under laughing-gas one year, poor lad, (apposition)
Talent, Mr. Micawber has, capital. Fr. Micawber has not. (direct object)
It was indeed, to Forsyte eyes, an odd house, (indirect object)
Gordon was stubbornly crawling to the place of his destination inch by inch - like a caterpillar, (adverbial modifier).
Communicative function. Detachment results in logical emphasis of the components of sentence structure.
Поміж людьми, як кажуть, добре й нам. (parenthetic clause)
А у натовпі був і він, Пилип, (apposition)
RHETORIC QUESTION
Contextual environment of a language unit may change its initial meaning. A typical case of contextual transposition of meaning is rhetoric questions. In fact, rhetoric questions are not questions but affirmative or negative statements put into the interrogative shape. A rhetoric question needs no answer, because the answer to it is quite obvious:
Why should I do it? means / shouldn't do it. Why doesn't he shut up? means He must shut up
Життя цілого не досить, а що є в людині, окрім життя?
Communicative functions. A rhetoric question enhances the expressiveness of speech. Used in oratory style, rhetoric questions aim at catching the attention of the audience, making the sequential sentences sound persuasive and significant.
There are some more varieties of contextual transposition of meaning:
1. Exclamatory sentences with inversion:
Much he knew about it 1 — He did not know much about it.
Дуже ти багато розумієшся на мистецтві! Натюрморт від пейзажу відрізнити не можеш.
2. Negative sentences implying emphatic affirmation:
/7/ hang myself if it isn't Barney Woods who did it! = It is Barney Woods who did it.
Syntactic structures of the type "Me a liar?" (I am not a liar).
Syntactic structures with Subjunctive mood forms:/ wish I had not done it — / had done it.



8. Lexico-syntactic stylistic devices. Figures of combination: climax, anticlimax, antithesis, simile, periphrasis
CLIMAX (GRADATION)
This figure of inequality consists in
arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration:
I am sorry. I am so very sorry. I am so extremely sorry.
Кмітливий - розумний - мудрий
Classification. Gradation which increases emotional tension of the utterance may be called emotional. Emotional gradation is created by synonymic words with emotive meanings:
nice - lovely - beautiful - fair - magnificent;
На серці в Гната ставало так погано, прикро, болісна.
Пилип так зажурився, аж скис.
Gradation revealing the quantity of objects may be called quantitative:
There were hundreds of houses, thousands of stairs, innumerable kitchens.
Око бачить далеко, а розум ще далі.
ANTICLIMAX
It consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it decreases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration:
If John's eyes fill with tears, you may have no doubt: he has been eating raw onions.
Вони і жваво сміялись, і стиха сяяли радістю.
Climax and anticlimax may be combined, like in the anecdote:
ANTITHESIS
This figure of contrast stands close to oxymoron. The major difference between them is structural: oxymoron is realized through a single word-combination, while antithesis is a confrontation of at least two separate phrases semantically opposite. Compare:
"wise foolishness" is an oxymoron;
"... the age of wisdom, the age of foolishness" is an antithesis.
Assigned features. Syntactic structures expressing the meaning of antithesis are quite various: a simple extended sentence, a composite sentence, a paragraph or even chain of paragraphs. The main lexical means of antithesis formation is antonyms (words opposite in meaning): danger - security, life — death, empty -occupied, to hurry — to go slow. However, the use of antonyms is not strictly obligatory. Antithesis may also be formed through situational confrontation of two notions expressed by non-antonymous words. For example:
Gilbert wears fine clothes while I go in rags.
Янгольський голосок, та чортова думка.
Слова одні нам тішать слух і зір. А інші нас відштовхують раптово.
SIMILE
This figure of identity consists in expressive comparison of two objects which have something in common.
Assigned features. Simile should not be confused with logical comparison which is devoid of any stylistic meaning. The sentence "John can run as fast as Jack" contains purely logical confrontation of two objects. Here are some more examples of logical comparison:
John is older than Sam.
Іван Захарович знає це краще, Ніж будь-хто.
Classification. Simile may be expressed by means of the following structural variants:
1. Conjunctions as or like:
Rosa is as beautiful as a flower. Paula is like a fairy.
2. Adverbial clauses of comparison (conjunctions as, as if, as though):Viola behaves as if she were a child.
Adjectives in the comparative degree: Roy behaved worse than a cutthroat.
Adverbial word-combinations containing prepositional attributes:With the quickness of a cat. Samuel climbed up the tree.
Simile may be implied, having no formal indications of comparison:Odette had a strange resemblance to a captive bird.
PERIPHRASIS
This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon.
Assigned features. Periphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the object described. It stands close to metonymy because it is one more way to rename objects.
Classification. There are such types of periphrasis as logical and figurative. Logical periphrasis is based upon one of the inherent properties of the object:
weapons = instruments of destruction;
Київ = місто каштанів;
Figurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or metonymy:
to marry = to tie the knot (metaphor); enthusiast = young blood (metonymy); money = root of evil (metaphor).
Communicative functions. Besides rendering stylistic information, periphrasis performs a cognitive function: it deepens our knowledge of the objective world. More examples:
women = the better (fair) sex = краща (прекрасна) стать;
medical men = people in white gowns = люди у білих халатах;
oil = black gold = чорне золото
9
Stylistic Differentiation of the Vocabulary:
Literary Stratum of Words. Colloquial Words
The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups, differing from each other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest division is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic connotation and suitable for any communicative situation; two smaller ones are literary and colloquial strata respectively.
Literary words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while the colloquial ones are employed in non-official everyday communication. Though there is no immediate correlation between the written and the oral forms of speech on the one hand, and the literary and colloquial words, on the other, yet, for the most part, the first ones are mainly observed in the written form, as most literary messages appear in writing. And vice versa: though there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing (informal letters, diaries, certain passages of memoirs, etc.), their usage is associated with the oral form of communication.
Consequently, taking for analysis printed materials we shall find literary words in authorial speech, descriptions, considerations, while colloquialisms will be observed in the types of discourse, simulating (copying) everyday oral communication - i.e., in the dialogue (or interior monologue) of a prose work.
When we classify some speech (text) fragment as literary or colloquial it does not mean that all the words constituting it have a corresponding stylistic meaning. More than that: words with a pronounced stylistic connotation are few in any type of discourse, the overwhelming majority of its lexis being neutral. As our famous philologist L.V. Shcherba once said - a stylistically coloured word is like a drop of paint added to a glass of pure water and colouring the whole of it.
Neither of the two named groups of words, possessing a stylistic meaning, is homogeneous as to the quality of the meaning, frequency of use, sphere of application, or the number and character of potential users. This is why each one is further divided into the general, i.e. known to and used by most native speakers in generalized literary (formal) or colloquial (informal) communication, and special bulks. The latter ones, in their turn, are subdivided into subgroups, each one serving a rather narrow, specified communicative рифове.
So, among special literary words, as a rale, at least two major subgroups are mentioned. They are:
Terms, i.e. words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique.
Archaisms, i.e. words, a) denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use (such as "yeoman", "vassal", "falconet"). These are historical words.
used in poetry in the XVII-XIX cc. (such as "steed" for "horse"; "quoth" for "said"; "woe" for "sorrow"). These are poetic words.
in the course of language history ousted by newer synonymic words (such as "whereof = of which; "to, deem'' =?to think; "repast" = meal; "nay" = no) or forms ("maketh" = makes; "thou wilt" = you will; "brethren" = brothers). These are called archaic words (archaic forms) proper.
Literary words, both general (also called learned, bookish, high-flown) and special, contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness. They are used in official papers and documents, in scientific communication, in high poetry, in authorial speech of creative prose.
Colloquial words, on the contrary, mark the message as informal, non-official, conversational. Apart from general colloquial words, widely used by all speakers of the language in their everyday communication (e.g. "dad", "kid", "crony", "fan", "to pop", "folks"), such special subgroups may be mentioned:
1. Slang forms the biggest one. Slang words, used by most speakers in very informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive and as such, lose their originality rather fast and are replaced by newer formations. This tendency to synonymic expansion results in long chains of synonyms of various degrees of expressiveness, denoting one and the same concept. So, the idea of a "pretty girl" is worded by more than one hundred ways in slang.
In only one novel by S. Lewis there are close to a dozen synonyms used by Babbitt, the central character, in reference to a girl: "cookie", "tomato", "Jane", "sugar", "bird", "cutie", etc.
The substandard status of slang words and phrases, through universal usage, can be raised to the standard colloquial: "pal", "chum," "crony" for "friend"; "heavies", "woolies" for "thick panties"; "booze" for "liquor"; "dough" for "money"; "how's tricks" for "how's life"; "beat it" for "go away" and many many more - are examples of such a transition.
2. Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (in this case we deal with professional jargonisms, от professionalisms), or socially (here we deal with jargonisms proper). In distinction from slang, jargonisms of both types cover a narrow semantic field: in the first case it is that, connected with the technical side of some profession. So, in oil industry, e.g., for the terminological "driller" (буровщик) there exist "borer", "digger", "wrencher", "hogger", "brake weight"; for "pipeliner" (трубопроводчик) - "swabber", "bender", "cat", "old cat", "collar-pecker", "hammerman"; for "geologist" -"smeller", "pebble pup", "rock hound", "witcher", etc. From all the examples at least two points are evident: professionalisms are formed according to the existing word-building patterns or present existing words in new meanings, and, covering the field of special professional knowledge, which is semanti-cally limited, they offer a vast variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item.
Jargonisms proper are characterized by similar linguistic features, but differ in function and sphere of application. They originated from the thieves' jargon (l'argo, cant) and served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated. Their major function thus was to be cryptic, secretive. This is why among them there are cases of conscious deformation of the existing words. The so-called back jargon (or back slang) can serve as an example: in their effort to conceal the machinations of dishonest card-playing, gamblers used numerals in their reversed form: "ano" for "one", "owt" for "two", "erth" for "three".
Anglo-American tradition, starting with E. Partridge, a famous English lexicographer, does not differentiate between slang and jargonisms regarding these groups as one extensive stratum of words divided into general slang, used by all, or most, speakers and special slang, limited by the professional or social standing of the speaker. This debate appears to concentrate more on terminology than on essence. Indeed slang (general slang) and jargonisms (special slang) have much in common: are etfiotive, expressive, unstable, fluctuating, tending to expanded synonymity within certain lexico-semantic groups and limited to a highly informal, substandard communication. So it seems appropriate to use the indicated terms as synonyms.
Vulgarisms are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation. History of vulgarisms reflects the history of social ethics. So, in Shakespearian times people were much more linguistically frank and disphemistic in their communication than in the age of Enligtenment or the Victorian era, famous for its prudish and reserved manners. Nowadays words which were labelled vulgar in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are considered such no more. In fact, at present we are faced with the reverse of the problem: there are practically no words banned from use by the mod ern permissive society. Such intensifiers as "bloody", "damned", "cursed", "hell of", formerly deleted from literature and hot allowed in conversation, are not only welcomed in both written and oral speech, but, due to constant repetition, have lost much of their emotive impact and substandard (Juality. One of the best-known American editors and critics Maxwell Perkins, working with the serialized 1929 magazine edition of Hemingway's novel A Farewell to Arms found that the publishers deleted close to a dozen words which they considered vulgar for the publication. Preparing the hard-cover edition Perkins allowed half of them back ("son of a bitch", "whore", "whbrehound," etc.). Starting from the late fifties no publishing house objected to any coarse or obscene ex-" pressions. Consequently, in contemporary West European and American prose all woKfc, formerly considered vulgar for public use (including the four-letter words), are accepted by the existing moral and ethical standards of society and censorship.
Dialectal ^vords are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used Outside of them, carry a strong flavour of the locality where they belong. In Great Britain four major dialects are distinguished: Inland Scotch, Northern, Midland (Central) and Southern. In the USA'&ree major dialectal varieties are distinguished:New England, Southeni and Midwestern (Central, Midland). These classifications do not include many minor local variations. Dialects markedly differ on the phonemic level: one and the same phoneme is differently pronounced in each of them. They differ also on the lexical level, having their own names for locally existing phenomena and also supplying locally circulating synonyms for the words, accepted by the language in general. Some of mem have entered the general vocabulary and lost their dialectal status ("lad", "pet", "squash", "plaid").
Each of the above-mentioned four groups justifies its label of special colloquial words as each one, due to varying reasons, has application limited to a certain group of people or to certain communicative situations.