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История компьтера и компьютерной техники
ESSAY
The Comparative Analisis Of The History Of The Computer Science
And The Computer Engineering In The USA And Ukraine.
?
USA.
HOWARD H. AIKEN AND THE COMPUTER
oward Aiken's contributions to the development of the computer -
notably the Harvard Mark I (IBM ASSC) machine, and its successor the
Mark II - are often excluded from the mainstream history of computers on two
technicalities. The first is that Mark I and Mark II were electro-mechanical
rather than electronic; the second one is that Aiken was never convinced that
computer programs should be treated as data in what has come to be known as
the von Neumann concept, or the stored program.
It is not proposed to discuss here the origins and significance of the
stored program. Nor I wish to deal with the related problem of whether the
machines before the stored program were or were not "computers". This
subject is complicated by the confusion in actual names given to machines.
For example, the ENIAC, which did not incorporate a stored program, was
officially named a computer: Electronic Numeral Integrator And Computer.
But the first stored-program machine to be put into regular operation was
Maurice Wiles' EDSAC: Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator. It
seems to be rather senseless to deny many truly significant innovations (by
H.H.Aiken and by Eckert and Mauchly), which played an important role in
the history of computers, on the arbitrary ground that they did not incorporate
the stored-program concept. Additionally, in the case of Aiken, it is
significant that there is a current computer technology that does not
incorporate the stored programs and that is designated as (at least by TEXAS
INSTRUMENTS?) as "Harvard architecture", though, it should more
properly be called "Aiken architecture". In this technology the program is fix
and not subject to any alteration save by intent - as in some computers used
for telephone switching and in ROM.
OPERATION
OF THE
ENIAC.
Aiken was a visionary, a man ahead of his times. Grace Hopper and
others remember his prediction in the late 1940s, even before the vacuum tube
had been wholly replaced by the transistor, that the time would come when a
machine even more powerful than the giant machines of those days could be
fitted into a space as small as a shoe box.
Some weeks before his death Aiken had made another prediction. He
pointed out that hardware considerations alone did not give a true picture of
computer costs. As hardware has become cheaper, software has been apt to
get more expensive. And then he gave us his final prediction: "The time will
come", he said, "when manufacturers will gave away hardware in order to sell
software". Time alone will tell whether or not this was his final look ahead
into the future.
?
THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS IN THE USA
n the early 1960s, when computers were hulking mainframes that
took up entire rooms, engineers were already toying with the then -
extravagant notion of building a computer intended for the sole use of one
person. by the early 1970s, researches at Xerox's Polo Alto Research Center
(Xerox PARC) had realized that the pace of improvement in the technology of
semiconductors - the chips of silicon that are the building blocks of present-
day electronics - meant that sooner or later the PC would be extravagant no
longer. They foresaw that computing power would someday be so cheap that
engineers would be able to afford to devote a great deal of it simply to making
non-technical people more comfortable with these new information - handling
tools. in their labs, they developed or refined much of what constitutes PCs
today, from "mouse" pointing devices to software "windows".
Although the work at Xerox PARC was crucial, it was not the spark
that took PCs out of the hands of experts and into the popular imagination.
That happened inauspiciously in January 1975, when the magazine Popular
Electronics put a new kit for hobbyists, called the Altair, on its cover. for the
first time, anybody with $400 and a soldering iron could buy and assemble his
own computer. The Altair inspired Steve Wosniak and Steve Jobs to build the
first Apple computer, and a young college dropout named Bill Gates to write
software for it. Meanwhile. the person who deserves the credit for inventing
the Altair, an engineer named Ed Roberts, left the industry he had spawned to
go to medical school. Now he is a doctor in small town in central Georgia.
To this day, researchers at Xerox and elsewhere pooh-pooh the Altair
as too primitive to have made use of the technology they felt was needed to
bring PCs to the masses. In a sense, they are right. The Altair incorporated
one of the first single-chip microprocessor - a semiconductor chip, that
contained all the basic circuits needed to do calculations - called the
Intel 8080. Although the 8080 was advanced for its time, it was far too slow
to support the mouse, windows, and elaborate software Xerox had developed.
Indeed, it wasn't until 1984, when Apple Computer's Macintosh burst onto
the scene, that PCs were powerful enough to fulfill the original vision of
researchers. "The kind of computing that people are trying to do today is just
what we made at PARC in the early 1970s," says Alan Kay, a former Xerox
researcher who jumped to Apple in the early 1980s.
MACINTOSH
PERFORMA
6200/6300
Researchers today are proceeding in the same spirit that motivated Kay
and his Xerox PARC colleagues in the 1970s: to make information more
accessible to ordinary people. But a look into today's research labs reveals
very little that resembles what we think of now as a PC. For one thing,
researchers seem eager to abandon the keyboard and monitor that are the PC's
trademarks. Instead they are trying to devise PCs with interpretive powers that
are more humanlike - PCs that can hear you and see you, can tell when you're
in a bad mood and know to ask questions when they don't understand
something.
It is impossible to predict the invention that, like the Altair, crystallize
new approaches in a way that captures people's imagination.
TOP 20 COMPUTER SYSTEMS
?
rom soldering irons to SparcStations, from MITS to Macintosh,
personal computers have evolved from do-it-yourself kits for electronic
hobbyists into machines that practically leap out of the box and set
themselves up. What enabled them to get from there to here? Innovation and
determination. Here are top 20 systems that made that rapid evolution
possible.
? MITS Altair 8800
There once was a time when you could buy a top-of-the-line computer
for $395. The only catch was that you had to build it yourself. Although the
Altair 8800 wasn't actually the first personal computer (Scelbi Computer
Consulting`s 8008-based Scelbi-8H kit probably took that honor in 1973), it
grabbed attention. MITS sold 2000 of them in 1975 - more than any single
computer before it.
Based on Intel`s 8-bit 8080 processor, the Altair 8800 kit included 256
bytes of memory (upgradable, of course) and a toggle-switch-and-LED front
panel. For amenities such as keyboard, video terminals, and storage devices,
you had to go to one of the companies that sprang up to support the Altair
with expansion cards. In 1975, MITS offered 4- and 8-KB Altair versions of
BASIC, the first product developed by Bill Gates` and Paul Allen`s new
company, Microsoft.
If the personal computer hobbyists movement was simmering, 1975
saw it come to a boil with the introduction of the Altair 8800.
? Apple II
Those of you who think of the IBM PC as the quintessential business
computers may be in for a surprise: The Apple II (together with VisiCalc) was
what really made people to look at personal computers as business tools, not
just toys.
The Apple II debuted at the first West Coast Computer Fair in San
Francisco in 1977. With built-in keyboard, graphics display, eight readily
accessible expansion slots, and BASIC built-into ROM, the Apple II was
actually easy to use. Some of its innovations, like built-in high-resolution
color graphics and a high-level language with graphics commands, are still
extraordinary features in desk top machines.
With a 6502 CPU, 16 KB of RAM, a 16-KB ROM, a cassette interface
that never really worked well (most Apple It ended up with the floppy drive
the was announced in 1978), and color graphics, the Apple II sold for $1298.
? Commondore PET
Also introduced at the first West Coast Computer Fair, Commondore`s
PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) started a long line of expensive
personal computers that brought computers to the masses. (The VIC-20 that
followed was the first computer to sell 1 million units, and the Commondore
64 after that was the first to offer a whopping 64 KB of memory.)
The keyboard and small monochrome display both fit in the same one-
piece unit. Like the Apple II, the PET ran on MOS Technology's 6502. Its
$795 price, key to the Pet's popularity supplied only 4 KB of RAM but
included a built-in cassette tape drive for data storage and 8-KB version of
Microsoft BASIC in its 14-KB ROM.
? Radio Shack TRS-80
Remember the Trash 80? Sold at local Radio Shack stores in your
choice of color (Mercedes Silver), the TRS-80 was the first ready-to-go
computer to use Zilog`s Z80 processor.
The base unit was essentially a thick keyboard with 4 KB of RAM and
4 KB of ROM (which included BASIC). An optional expansion box that
connected by ribbon cable allowed for memory expansion. A Pink Pearl
eraser was standard equipment to keep those ribbon cable connections clean.
Much of the first software for this system was distributed on
audiocassettes played in from Radio Shack cassette recorders.
? Osborne 1 Portable
By the end of the 1970s, garage start-ups were pass. Fortunately there
were other entrepreneurial possibilities. Take Adam Osborne, for example. He
sold Osborne Books to McGraw-Hill and started Osborne Computer. Its first
product, the 24-pound Osborne 1 Portable, boasted a low price of $1795.
More important, Osborne established the practice of bundling software
- in spades. The Osborne 1 came with nearly $1500 worth of programs:
WordStar, SuperCalc, BASIC, and a slew of CP/M utilities.
Business was looking good until Osborne preannounced its next
version while sitting on a warehouse full of Osborne 1S. Oops.
Reorganization under Chapter 11 followed soon thereafter.
? Xerox Star
This is the system that launched a thousand innovations in 1981. The
work of some of the best people at Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center)
went into it. Several of these - the mouse and a desktop GUI with icons -
showed up two years later in Apple`s Lisa and Macintosh computers. The Star
wasn't what you would call a commercial success, however. The main
problem seemed to be how much it cost. It would be nice to believe that
someone shifted a decimal point somewhere: The pricing started at $50,000.
? IBM PC
Irony of ironies that someone at mainframe-centric IBM recognized the
business potential in personal computers. The result was in 1981 landmark
announcement of the IBM PC. Thanks to an open architecture, IBM's clout,
and Lotus 1-2-3 (announced one year later), the PC and its progeny made
business micros legitimate and transformed the personal computer world.
The PC used Intel`s 16-bit 8088, and for $3000, it came with 64 KB of
RAM and a 51/4-inch floppy drive. The printer adapter and monochrome
monitor were extras, as was the color graphics adapter.
? Compaq Portable
Compaq's Portable almost single-handedly created the PC clone
market. Although that was about all you could do with it single-handedly - it
weighed a ton. Columbia Data Products just preceded Compaq that year with
the first true IBM PC clone but didn't survive. It was Compaq's quickly
gained reputation for engineering and quality, and its essentially 100 percent
IBM compatibility (reverse-engineering, of course), that legitimized the clone
market. But was it really designed on a napkin?
? Radio Shack TRS-80 Model 100
Years before PC-compatible subnotebook computers, Radio Shack
came out with a book-size portable with a combination of features, battery
life, weight, and price that is still unbeatable. (Of course, the Z80-based
Model 100 didn't have to run Windows.)
The $800 Model 100 had only an 8-row by 40-column reflective LCD
(large at the time) but supplied ROM-based applications (including text
editor, communications program, and BASIC interpreter), a built-in modem,
I/O ports, nonvolatile RAM, and a great keyboard. Wieghing under 4 pounds,
and with a battery life measured in weeks (on four AA batteries), the Model
100 quickly became the first popular laptop, especially among journalists.
With its battery-backed RAM, the Model 100 was always in standby
mode, ready to take notes, write a report, or go on-line. NEC`s PC 8201 was
essentially the same Kyocera-manufectured system.
? Apple Macintosh
Whether you saw it as a seductive invitation to personal computing or a
cop-out to wimps who were afraid of a command line, Apple`s Macintosh and
its GUI generated even more excitement than the IBM PC. Apple`s R&D
people were inspired by critical ideas from Xerox PARK (and practiced on
Apple`s Lisa) but added many of their own ideas to create a polished product
that changed the way people use computers.
The original Macintosh used Motorola's 16-bit 68000 microprocessor.
At $2495, the system offered a built-in-high-resolution monochrome display,
the Mac OS, and a single-button mouse. With only 128 KB of RAM, the Mac
was underpowered at first. But Apple included some key applications that
made the Macintosh immediately useful. (It was MacPaint that finally showed
people what a mouse is good for.)
? IBM AT
George Orwell didn't foresee the AT in 1984. Maybe it was because
Big Blue, not Big Brother, was playing its cards close to its chest. The IBM
AT set new standards for performance and storage capacity. Intel`s blazingly
fast 286 CPU running at 6 MHz and 16-bit bus structure gave the AT several
times the performance of previous IBM systems. Hard drive capacity doubled
from 10 MB to 20 MB (41 MB if you installed two drives - just donut ask
how they did the math), and the cost per megabyte dropped dramatically.
New 16-bit expansion slots meant new (and faster) expansion cards but
maintained downward compatibility with old 8-bit cards. These hardware
changes and new high-density 1.2-MB floppy drives meant a new version of
PC-DOS (the dreaded 3.0).
The price for an AT with 512 KB of RAM, a serial/parallel adapter, a
high-density floppy drive, and a 20-MB hard drive was well over $5000 - but
much less than what the pundits expected.
? Commondore Amiga 1000
The Amiga introduced the world to multimedia. Although it cost only
$1200, the 68000-based Amiga 1000 did graphics, sound, and video well
enough that many broadcast professionals adopted it for special effects. Its
sophisticated multimedia hardware design was complex for a personal
computer, as was its multitasking, windowing OS.
? Compaq Deskrpo 386
While IBM was busy developing (would "wasting time on" be a better
phrase?) proprietary Micro Channel PS/2 system, clone vendors ALR and
Compaq wrestled away control of the x86 architecture and introduced the first
386-based systems, the Access 386 and Deskpro 386. Both systems
maintained backward compatibility with the 286-based AT.
Compaq's Deskpro 386 had a further performance innovation in its
Flex bus architecture. Compaq split the x86 external bus into two separate
buses: a high-speed local bus to support memory chips fast enough for the 16-
MHz 386, and a slower I/O bus that supported existing expansion cards.
? Apple Macintosh II
When you first looked at the Macintosh II, you may have said, "But it
looks just like a PC. "You would have been right. Apple decided it was wiser
to give users a case they could open so they could upgrade it themselves. The
monitor in its 68020-powered machine was a separate unit that typically sat
on top of the CPU case.
? Next Nextstation
UNIX had never been easy to use , and only now, 10 years later, are we
getting back to that level. Unfortunately, Steve Job's cube never developed
the software base it needed for long-term survival. Nonetheless, it survived as
an inspiration for future workstations.
Priced at less than $10,000, the elegant Nextstation came with a 25-
MHz 68030 CPU, a 68882 FPU, 8 MB of RAM, and the first commercial
magneto-optical drive (256-MB capacity). It also had a built-in DSP (digital
signal processor). The programming language was object-oriented C, and the
OS was a version of UNIX, sugarcoated with a consistent GUI that rivaled
Apple`s.
? NEC UltraLite
Necks UltraLite is the portable that put subnotebook into the lexicon.
Like Radio Shack's TRS-80 Model 100, the UltraLite was a 4-pounder ahead
of its time. Unlike the Model 100, it was expensive (starting price, $2999),
but it could run MS-DOS. (The burden of running Windows wasn't yet thrust
upon its shoulders.)
Fans liked the 4.4-pound UltraLite for its trim size and portability, but
it really needed one of today's tiny hard drives. It used battery-backed DRAM
(1 MB, expandable to 2 MB) for storage, with ROM-based Traveling
Software's LapLink to move stored data to a desk top PC.
Foreshadowing PCMCIA, the UltraLite had a socket that accepted
credit-card-size ROM cards holding popular applications like WordPerfect or
Lotus 1-2-3, or a battery-backed 256-KB RAM card.
? Sun SparcStation 1
It wasn't the first RISK workstation, nor even the first Sun system to
use Sun's new SPARC chip. But the SparcStation 1 set a new standard for
price/performance, churning out 12.5 MIPS at a starting price of only $8995 -
about what you might spend for a fully configured Macintosh. Sun sold lots
of systems and made the words SparcStation and workstation synonymous in
many peoples minds.
The SparcStation 1 also introduced S-Bus, Sun's proprietary 32-bit
synchronous bus, which ran at the same 20-MHz speed as the CPU.
? IBM RS/6000
Sometimes, when IBM decides to do something, it does it right.(Other
times... Well, remember the PC jr.?)The RS/6000 allowed IBM to enter the
workstation market. The RS/6000`s RISK processor chip set (RIOS) racked
up speed records and introduced many to term suprscalar. But its price was
more than competitive. IBM pushed third-party software support, and as a
result, many desktop publishing, CAD, and scientific applications ported to
the RS/6000, running under AIX, IBM's UNIX.
A shrunken version of the multichip RS/6000 architecture serves as the
basis for the single-chip PowerPC, the non-x86-compatible processor with the
best chance of competing with Intel.
? Apple Power Macintosh
Not many companies have made the transition from CISC to RISK this
well. The Power Macintosh represents Apple`s well-planned and successful
leap to bridge two disparate hardware platforms. Older Macs run Motorola's
680x0 CISK line, which is running out of steam; the Power Macs run existing
680x0-based applications yet provide Power PC performance, a combination
that sold over a million systems in a year.
? IBM ThinkPad 701C
It is not often anymore that a new computer inspires gee-whiz
sentiment, but IBM's Butterfly subnotebook does, with its marvelous
expanding keyboard. The 701C`s two-part keyboard solves the last major
piece in the puzzle of building of usable subnotebook: how to provide
comfortable touch-typing.(OK, so the floppy drive is sill external.)
With a full-size keyboard and a 10.4-inch screen, the 4.5-pound 701C
compares favorably with full-size notebooks. Battery life is good, too.
?
THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS IN UKRAINE AND
THE FORMER USSR
he government and the authorities had paid serious attention to
the development of the computer industry right after the Second World War.
The leading bodies considered this task to be one of the principal for the
national economy.
Up to the beginning of the 1950s there were only small productive
capacities which specialized in the producing accounting and account-
perforating (punching) machines. The electronic numerical computer
engineering was only arising and the productive capacities for it were close to
the naught.
The first serious steps in the development of production base were
made initially in the late 1950s when the work on creating the first industry
samples of the electronic counting machines was finished and there were
created M-20, "Ural-1", "Minsk-1", which together with their semi-conductor
successors (M-220, "Ural-11-14", "Minsk-22" and "Minsk-32") created in the
1960s were the main ones in the USSR until the computers of the third
generation were put into the serial production, that is until the early 1970s.
In the 1960s the science-research and assembling base was enlarged. As
the result of this measures, all researches connected with creating and putting
into the serial production of semi-conductor electronic computing machines
were almost finished. That allowed to stop the production of the first
generation machines beginning from the 1964.
Next decades the whole branch of the computer engineering had been
created. The important steps were undertaken to widen the productive
capacities for the 3d generation machines.
?
EIEV
THE HOMECITY OF MESM
ESM was conceived by S.A.Lebedev to be a model of a Big
Electronic Computing Machine (BESM). At first it was called the Model of
the Big Electronic Computing Machine, but ,later, in the process of its
creation there appeared the evident expediency of transforming it in a small
computer. For that reason there were added: the impute-output devices,
magnetic drum storage, the register capacity was enhanced; and the word
"Model" was changed for "Malaya" (Small).
S.A.Lebedev was proposed to head the Institute of Energetics in Kiev.
After a year; when the Institute of was divided into two departments: the
electronical one and the department of heat-and-power engineering, Lebedev
became the director of the first one. He also added his laboratory of analogue
computation to the already existing ones of the electronical type. At once he
began to work on computer science instead of the usual, routine researches in
the field of engineering means of stabilization and structures of automated
devices. Lebedev was awarded the State Prize of the USSR. Since autumn
1948 Lebedev directed his laboratory towards creating the MESM. The most
difficult part of the work was the practical creation of MESM. It might be
only the many-sided experience of the researches that allowed the scientist to
fulfill the task perfectly; whereas one inaccuracy was made: the hall at the
ground-floor of a two-storied building was assigned for MESM and when, at
last, the MESM was assembled and switched on, 6,000 of red-hot electronic
lamps created the "tropics" in the hall, so they had to remove a part of the
ceiling to decrease the temperature.
In autumn 1951 the machine executed a complex program rather
stabile.
OIA MESM
WITH SOME
OF THE
PERSONAL
(KIEV, 1951)
Finally all the tests were over and on December, 15 the MESM was put
into operation.
If to remember those short terms the MESM was projected, assembled,
and debugged - in two years - and taking into consideration that only 12
people (including Lebedev) took part in the creating who were helped by 15
engineers we shall see that S.A.Lebedev and his team accomplished a feat
(200 engineers and many workers besides 13 main leaders took part in the
creation of the first American computer ENIAC).
As life have showed the foundations of the computer-building laid by
Lebedev are used in modern computers without any fundamental changes.
Nowadays they are well known:
? such devices an arithmetic and memory input-output and control ones
should be a part of a computer architecture;
? the program of computing is encoded and stored in the memory as
numbers;
? the binary system should be used for encoding the numbers and
commands;
? the computations should be made automatically basing on the program
stored in the memory and operations on commands;
? besides arithmetic, logical operations are used: comparisons,
conjunction, disjunction, and negation;
? the hierarchy memory method is used;
? the numerical methods are used for solving the tasks.
THE MAIN FAULT OF THE 70S
OR
THE YEARS OF "MIGHT-HAVE-BEEN HOPES"
?
he great accumulated experience in creating computers, the
profound comparison of our domestic achievements with the new examples of
foreign computer technique prompted the scientists that it is possible to create
the computing means of new generation meeting the world standards. Of that
opinion were many outstanding Ukrainian scientists of that time - Lebedev,
Dorodnitsin, Glushkov and others. They proceeded from quite a favorable
situation in the country.
The computerization of national economy was considered as one of the
most essential tasks. The decision to create the United system of computers -
the machines of new generation on integrals.
The USA were the first to create the families of computers. In 1963-64
the IBM Company worked out the IBM-360 system. It comprised the models
with different capacities for which a wide range of software was created.
A decision concerning the third generation of computers (their structure
and architecture) was to be made in the USSR in the late 60s.
But instead of making the decision based on the scientific grounds
concerning the future of the United system of computers the Ministry of
Electronic Industry issued the administrative order to copy the IBM-360
system. The leaders of the Ministry did not take into consideration the opinion
of the leading scientists of the country.
Despite the fact that there were enough grounds for thinking the 70s
would bring new big progresses, those years were the step back due to the
fault way dictated by the highest authorities from above.
?
THE COMPARISON OF THE COMPUTER DEVELOPMENT
IN THE USA AND UKRAINE
t the time when the computer science was just uprising this two
countries were one of the most noticeably influential. There were a lot of
talented scientists and inventors in both of them. But the situation in Ukraine
(which at that time was one of 15 Republics of the former USSR) was
complicated, on one hand, with the consequences of the Second World War
and, on the other hand, at a certain period Cybernetics and Computer Science
were not acknowledged. Of cause, later it went to the past, but nevertheless it
played a negative role on the Ukrainian computer development.
It also should be noticed that in America they paid more attention to the
development of computers for civil and later personal use. But in Ukraine the
attention was mainly focused on the military and industrial needs.
Another interesting aspect of the Ukrainian computer development was
the process of the 70s when "sovietizing" of the IBM-360 system became the
first step on the way of weakening of positions achieved by the Soviet
machinery construction the first two decades of its development. The next
step that led to the further lag was the mindless copying by the SU Ministry of
Electronic Industry and putting into production the next American
elaborations in the field of microprocessor equipment.
The natural final stage was buying in enormous quantities of foreign
computers last years and pressing to the deep background our domestic
researches, and developments, and the computer-building industry on the
whole.
Another interesting aspect of the Ukrainian computer development was
the process of the 70s when the "sovietising" of the IBM-360 system became
the first step on the way of weakening of positions, achieved by the Soviet
machinery construction of the first two decades of its development. The next
step that led to the further lag was the mindless copying of the next American
elaborations in the field of microprocessor technique by the Ministry of
Computer Industry.
?
CONCLUSION
aving analyzed the development of computer science in two
countries I have found some similar and some distinctive features in the
arising of computers.
First of all, I would like to say that at the first stages the two countries
rubbed shoulders with each other. But then, at a certain stage the USSR was
sadly mistaken having copied the IBM-360 out of date technology. Estimating
the discussion of possible ways of the computer technique development in the
former USSR in late 1960s - early 1970s from the today point of view it can
be noticed that we have chosen a worse if not the worst one. The only
progressive way was to base on our domestic researches and to collaborate
with the west-European companies in working out the new generation of
machines. Thus we would reach the world level of production, and we would
have a real base for the further development together with leading European
companies.
Unfortunately the last twenty years may be called the years of
"unrealized possibilities". Today it is still possible to change the situation; but
tomorrow it will be too late.
Will the new times come? Will there be a new renaissance of science,
engineering and national economy as it was in the post-war period? Only one
thing remains for us - that is to wait, to hope and to do our best to reach the
final goal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Б.М.Малиновський "Історія обчислювальної техніки
в особах", Київ, 1995.
2. Stephen G. Nash "A History of Scientific Computing",
ACM Press History Series, New York, 1990.
3. Енциклопедія кібернетики, Київ, 1985.
4. The America House Pro-Quest Database: "Byte"
Magazine, September, 1995.
5. William Aspray, Charles Babbage Institute Reprint
Series in the History of Computing 7, Los Angeles, 1985.
6. D.J.Frailey "Computer Architecture" in Encyclopedia of
Computer Science.
7. Stan Augarten "Bit by Bit: An Illustrated History of
Computers", New York, 1984.
8. Michael R. Williams "A History of Computing
Technology", Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1985.
"Від БЕСМ до супер-ЕОМ. Сторінки історії Інституту
ІТМ та ОТ ім. С.О. Лебедева АН УРСР у спогадах
співробітників" під редакцією Г.Г. Рябової, 1988.
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